The Euthyphro Dilemma

The Euthyphro Dilemma Siddhanth Goyal   Does morality stem from God? Or does it exist independently of his presence, not subject to arbitrary decisions? The first discussion over these questions appeared in Platos Euthyphro, in which Plato chronicles the proceedings of a highly repetitive argument between Socrates and Euthyphro, a prophet and holy man, over the nature of piety and holiness. The questions produced in this dialogue have been expanded to remain relevant even in a modern religious context. It has achieved so much fame that the core question presented in this dialogue is now known as the Euthyphro Dilemma. In the dialogue, Socrates presents Euthyphro with a choice, Is what is holy loved by the gods because it is holy, or is it holy because it is loved [by the gods]?(Plato 10). I will defend the first view: the idea that there are independent moral standards, separate of any deity or their commands, and that there is a sovereign framework by which God understands what is moral. A dilemma is the concept of forcing a choice between two options that are either equally unfavorable (or favorable). To understand why each of the options set out above are objectionable for Euthyphro, we need to comprehend the implications of both. In order to make my argument, I will substitute the word `God for Platos gods, and the word moral for holy. These changes will not affect the strength or cogency of the argument, and will make the dilemma more relevant to the modern reader. The dilemma faced by Euthyphro is this: if we maintain that certain actions are moral only because God approves them, then it seems that the distinction between moral and immoral actions is simply arbitrary; for no predominant reason can be given for why God should favor one kind of action over another. The distinction is simply a matter of Gods whims, just as it is up to me to prefer pencils to pens. As there is no reason provided for why God should favor integrity and generosity, he might equally have favored dishonesty and selfishness, and we must accept his commands as moral. This concept is known as the Divine Command Theory of ethics, where moral actions are mandatory simply because God commands people to do them. According to this theory, there are no moral standards that exist without Gods will, and without his commands, nothing would be right or wrong. God is omnipotent, and therefore, morality itself is derived from Gods nature. Without God, there is no basis for our moral structure and under this, what is moral is so because God has decreed it as such. This theory would stress the complete sovereignty of Gods will, and the concept that morality exists based not on reason, or any logical basis, but simply due to the arbitrary nature of Gods commands. This theory proposes that there is no rationale, moral or immoral, behind divine commands, and hence renders both his commands and morality subject to his whims. On this theory, God could have commanded, for example, for one to kill an innocent child, and it would have been mandatory for a person to do it. Abhorrent acts, or ones we would consider as such, are automatically pious, simply because God has decreed it, though many, including those who might be inclined to side with the this theory, would agree that they are abhorrent. The theory also rules out the option of assuming that God is just an agent of morality, not its progenitor, leaving the devotee with a puzzling quandary. On the other hand, rejecting the divine command theory, and accepting that moral principles exist independently of divine interpretation, destroys the idea of Gods omnipotence. Contrary to common belief, divine power would be restricted to actions allowed by ethical principles, and God would not be permitted to act, or offer commands, outside of these restrictions. I reject divine command theory in support of the idea that there is an independent moral framework, and that is what dictates whether or not something can be construed as being ethical. My findings are supported by the words of Socrates himself, when he is engaged in a discussion with Euthyphro: SOCRATES: And what do you say of piety, Euthyphro. Is not piety, according to your definition, loved by all the gods? EUTHYPHRO: Yes. SOCRATES: Because it is pious or holy, or for some other reason? EUTHYPHRO: No, that is the reason. SOCRATES: It is loved because it is holy, not holy because it is loved? EUTHYPHRO: Yes. SOCRATES: And that which is dear to the gods is loved by them, and is in a state to be loved of them because it is loved of them? EUTHYPHRO: Certainly. SOCRATES: Then that which is dear to the gods, Euthyphro, is not holy, nor is that which is holy loved of God, as you affirm; but they are two different things. EUTHYPHRO: How do you mean, Socrates? SOCRATES: I mean to say that the holy has been acknowledged by us to be loved of God because it is holy, not to be holy because it is loved. EUTHYPHRO: Yes. (Plato 13-14) In this excerpt of the dialogue, Socrates leads Euthyphro to the conclusion that something is holy, or in our case, moral, prior to it being loved by God. It does not become such after being acknowledged by God. The Euthyphro concludes that morality cannot be identified by what is loved by God, as that would leave it an empty concept. If we decide to follow the second horn of this dilemma, then we must accept that God is simply a messenger for morality, not the source of it. He understands what is moral, and what is not, but doesnt directly have the power to change it. Another reason I am convinced of this horn is that this form of morality can exist without the presence of a religious deity. If morality exists indecently of God, then if there is no God, we still have a basis for morality, though that basis may be unknown. My argument is not made to discredit the presence of a religious figure, or to offend those who believe that morality stems from God. It may very well be that this is the case, and that God is truly an omnipotent being who decides what is, and is not, moral, in his all-encompassing wisdom. I only attempt to explain my belief that the second branch of this dilemma is the one I find to be more convincing, and to present evidence explaining my interpretation. I would like to argue, as a closing remark, that humanitys morality should be based on rational dialogue and a reasonable understanding of the consequences of ones actions. It can be boiled down to the concept of act utilitarianism, or the idea that morally justifiable actions are ones where net happiness gained outweighs net happiness lost, though concrete standards for measuring such changes in happiness are not at all possible. I pledge my honor that I have neither received nor provided unauthorized assistance during the completion of this work. Works Cited Plato. Euthyphro; Platos: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo. Trans. Benjamin Jowell; Rev. Albert A. Anderson. Millis, MA: Agora, 2005. 1-18. Print.

Globalization and advancement in technology Essay

Globalization and advancement in technology has resulted in the governments taking a back seat as regards shaping the destiny of its people. The increased capacities of individuals do not seem to provide any point of refuge. The most difficult thing from this situation is the fact that the new political agenda being championed for the millennium is not well documented for. The book China and Globalization presents an in-depth analysis of the political, economic and social transformations that the Chinese society and state went through over the past thirty years. The author argues that the rise of China throughout this period has been propelled through the dynamic geopolitical environment as a result of community building efforts that enhance economic cooperation CITATION Gut09 l 1033 (Guthrie, 2009). A Brief History of Neoliberalism by David Harvey aims to find out the goals of neoliberalism and presents a useful explanation on why neoliberal policies do not always follow neoliberal theory. Harvey simply considers this new form of political economy as a means through which the global economic elite reconstitutes the high class power CITATION Har05 l 1033 (Harvey, 2005). He states that elite power often takes precedence in the event of a conflict with the contemporary neoliberalism economic principles. Harvey’s book is a powerful tool for analyzing the accumulation by deficiency concept. Doug emphasizes that this has been the foundation to the facilitation and eventual institutionalization of China’s economic integration. This argument is quite a challenge of David Harvey’s neo liberal argument that the rises of neo liberal economies like the United States and capitalist China is the cornerstone of an intended project to restore the noble power. According to Doug, the rise of Chinese revolution is â€Å"the result of methodical and careful government policies† (p 8). The fundamental element basis of Doug’s argument lies in her view that the successful revolution of China was because it was gradual and was led by the state. She states that China’s propagation of bilateral PTA’s is a â€Å"necessary intermediate step toward a seamless integration into a pan regional framework† (Guthrie p.15). This argument, though quite an optimistic and bold claim by Doug Guthrie is in contrast to David Harvey who argues that the propag ation of bilateral PTAs is an emasculation to region building in Asia. David Harvey’s sanguine view is that most bilateral PTAs are merely destabilizing to regional cooperation owing to the fact that most bilateral PTAs are strategically or politically driven. The Chinese government led by Deng Xiaoping introduced reforms that allowed the actors of the economy to master the rules of capitalism rather than making assumptions and withdrawing perceptions based on intuitions CITATION Gut09 l 1033 (Guthrie, 2009). Incentives were stimulated by granting autonomy to the local government. Currently, foreign investors in China deal with provincial bureaucracy and build long term alliances rather than the central government. Guthrie points out that the crucial underlying mechanisms that boosted a much freer Chinese environment were the autonomy of individuals at the workplaces and the depletion of monitoring capacity of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Individuals no longer had to de pend on their superiors or work units despite the fact that there was a major rise in corruption among local officials. The results of such reforms were the evolution of an independent middle class that was economically secure. High rewards were offered to holders of foreign language skills and university degrees and the access to female education increased. Guthrie advocates for China to engage strongly with the United States in order to acquire grander external motivation as a way to overcome domestic hindrances. However, her assertion that a futurist state can better engineer changes from socialism raises questions as to whether or not developing countries can only grow by enforcing autocratic policies CITATION Gut09 l 1033 (Guthrie, 2009). David Harvey argues that while neoliberal economies may boast of allowing the free market to take its course, government intervention and regulation only comes into place when it is beneficial to economic elites. Thus from a neoliberal perspective, environmental and labor regulations by the government always lead to inefficiency by distorting free market price mechanisms CITATION Har05 l 1033 (Harvey, 2005). In his opinion, the main aim of neoliberalism was not wealth increase but wealth redistribution and uses statistics to explain this phenomenon. Harvey’s argument is supported by the decrease of real wages in the poorer sectors of neoliberal economies like the United States and the massive wealth increases of the economic elite. In his view, Harvey refers to this type of wealth distribution as accumulation by dispossession and goes on to state that this is how neoliberalism has managed to redistribute wealth and considers it a transition to the onset of capitalism. Among th e main aspects of this one sided wealth redistribution are monetization, privatization, state redistributions, commodification and the management by manipulation of crises. Harvey presents a brief history of neoliberalism where he point out that before its existence the political economy was dominated by embedded liberalism which was a form of capitalism. His assumption of neoliberalism is that it is quite extremist in its operation and if unchecked will be unruly because of socialism failure to develop a reliable model. The pretense by socialism as a means of management of the state and its people without any form of intervention of market forces results in social destruction CITATION Har05 l 1033 (Harvey, 2005). He is attached to this political tradition of democratic capitalism. His view is that of economic restructuring for the development of the people in general. To this effect, Harvey fails to understand why the way of doing things in neoliberal economies is more prominent across the globe even though they embrace democratic capitalism. The push and pull between the two ideologies of Guthrie and Harvey could be attributed to economic growth witnessed across the globe in this period. Harvey asserts in his writing that neoliberalism to some extent does not meet up its expectations by the people. The win by embedded neoliberalism according to him was not a stable environment to create a socially stable environment. Both authors present vague points at some point. Doug Guthrie believes that China is taking baby steps to becoming a capitalist nation and therefore the way to remain economically viable is through slow transition from a command to market economy. Guthrie in totality misses the whole idea that democracy and growth in newly industrialized countries have an inverse relationship. David Harvey on the other hand fails to clearly highlight the main economic policies of neoliberalism. From the review of the different aspects of the books by Harvey and Guthrie, it is indeed difficult to exactly point a celebration o f the past century with the misery related to the so many ideologies that have not been successful in the long run. The books depict a situation of melancholy with the authors coming to terms so late in agreeing with the disadvantages related to these ideologies and their lack of appreciation of the one ideology that has revealed the aspirations of human and has been able to change to the different circumstances of life as it is. References   Guthrie, D. (2009). China and Globalization: The Social, Economic and Political Transformation of Chinese Society. New York: Taylor & Francis. Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Source document

Brave New World Utopia Without Shakespeare - 1124 Words

Brave New World:nbsp; Utopia Without Shakespeare?nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; The Utopia of the future- something every human seemingly wants, but is it worth it to throw away everything for happiness and live in a world where only a few people can recall a man named Shakespeare? In Aldous Huxleys satirical novel, Brave New World, this cellophaned world, polished and regulated to perfection, is a reality. In this Utopia, people like Bernard Marx, an intelligent and adverse Alpha, the highest class of humans, are conditioned to worship the Great Ford, to believe everything the Controllers say, to amuse themselves with sports, feelies and non-utilitarian relationships and, most of all, to take soma, a drug simulating happiness,†¦show more content†¦Women are forced to take routine birth-control formulas to insure that no pregnancies occur. No love or intimacy exists, only physical pleasure. For recreation, people in the Brave New World amuse themselves with mindless sports, such as obstacle golf, or they attend feelies, movies in which the audience can feel the sensations and smell the aromas of the film. No books or poetry or philosophy exists to enrich their conditioned minds. They can only understand what theyre taught to understand. John experienced this sad reality in a frustrating attempt to force gammas to feel sorrow for someones death. They could not understand that emotion and they only stared at him with blank, identical faces. Therefore, these perfect people of a perfect society, live, lifeless, in their cellophaned world. They do not grow ugly and fat with age, they never experience hunger or discomfort or fear, yet the only happiness they feel is a simulation, an illusion. On the other hand, the seemingly primitive society of the simple Indian village, symbolic of our own, actually encompasses the real meaning of life- to live and love and die as an individual, as you choose. In the Indian village, people marry for love, they bear children and care for them and their heritage lives on in their descendants. Their lives are not predestined and they are not clones of one another. Each person experiences life individually, withShow MoreRelatedBrave New World By Aldous Huxley1329 Words   |  6 PagesLiving in a perfect world where everyone was happy, resources were plentiful, and the word war was never spoken would be the ideal place to live, however without chaos how would people know peace and without evil in the world how would there be good. Society is all about yin and yang, bad in the good and good in the bad. In the novel Brave New World by Aldous Huxley, London is transformed into a society where there are no mothers or father, babies are born in tubes, and there is no talk of marriageRead MoreAldous Huxley s Brave New World1720 Words   |  7 Pages In Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World, Huxley often repeats how important technology is in society. By using several references to technology, such as high-tech laboratory equipment that create new embryos and different types of helicopters for transportation, throughout the book, he proposes a radical idea that government can take advantage of people and their lifestyles by using technology. Huxley also uses the idea of a utopia in society, which is a place where all things are considered to beRead More`` Brave New World `` By Aldous Huxley924 Words   |  4 Pagesperson in this new world society born naturally from a mother and not from a factory, John is a unique human being with an identity and a family relationship unlike any other character in Aldous Huxley’s novel, â€Å"Brave New World†. Even though he is the son of two upper class utopians, he grows up in the depths of Malpais: The Savage Reservation. Torn between two cultures, John is not truly a part of the savage society or of the new world society. His only society is an imaginative world built aroundRead MoreCharacter Development in Brave New World1086 Words   |  5 Pages In the novel, Brave New World, written by Aldous Huxley, the author uses character development to contrast the two different societies present in the novel.He shows the importance of morality, or an increase in wisdom in the character of humankind. The author contrasts a society full of static and flat characters and another society full of round characters. In order to show the importance of life experiences in changing the character of individuals in the society. Bernard Marx an AlphaRead MoreBrave New World - Huxleys Message1253 Words   |  6 Pagestext. In Aldous Huxley’s â€Å"Brave New World†, John the Savage is the central protagonist opposed to Bernard Marx or Helmholtz Watson because he symbolizes cultural difference amongst the World State and the Savage Reservation. Although Bernard and Helmholtz demonstrate differences that would not be accepted in the civilized society, they are only seen as leading characters. Huxley uses John’s character to point out the short comings of what would become of a negative Utopia or â€Å"dystopia†, which is theRead MoreAnalysis Of Aldous Huxley s A Brave New World1708 Words   |  7 Pagessocieties, specifically those of the fictional variety we apply our mashed set of ideals based on truth and happiness on each of these different societies . In Aldous Huxley’s A Brave New World, by conventional societies ideas the citizens of the world state know nothing o f traditional reality and by the standards of the traditional world are far from a state of contentment, but if examined by the ideals of the society in question the overall appearance is quite different. the population seems happy becauseRead MoreBrave New World: Utopia?1430 Words   |  6 PagesII 26 April 2006 Brave New World: Utopia? When one envisions a utopian society, religion, the prevailing presence of social class segregation, and abusive drug use are not typically part of such a surreal picture. These attributes of society, which are generally the leading causes of discontent among its members, are more so the flaws an idealist would stray from in concocting such hypothesis for a more perfect world; not so for Aldous Huxley. In his novel, Brave New World, these ideals areRead MoreAnalysis Of Aldous Huxley s Brave New World 1250 Words   |  5 PagesAldous Huxley published a Brave New World in 1932 in which he depicts a society in which babies are born in bottles, the concept of an individual cell does not matter as people do not believe in intimacy, science is used as a form of control, subjugation and conditioning, and drugs as well as sex are forms of escaping the horrors of reality. Or as Laurence Brander (1970) put it, â€Å"Affection and loyalty are unnecessary, beauty is a synthetic product, t ruth is arranged in a test tube, hope is suppliedRead MoreAldous Huxley s Brave New World1334 Words   |  6 Pageso read Aldous Huxley’s Brave New World is to understand the fear for the future during the 1930’s. Widely considered ahead of its time, Brave New World is one of the most influential novels regarding the destructive outcome of genetic and public manipulation through regime control. The story contrasts two worlds: the traditional world where the â€Å"savages† reside and the new World State: a negative utopia where unrestrained sexual freedom, reproductive technology, and mind numbing drugs run rampantRead MoreBrave New World Loss Of Individuality Analysis906 Words   |  4 Pagesfuturistic novel Brave New World, published by Aldous Huxley, depicts a totalitarian government, which is a â€Å"political regime based on subordination†¦ and strict control of all aspects of the life and productive capacity of the nation.† This government succeeds in securing stability with the use of biotechnological and socio-scientific techniques. The World State has achieved â€Å"Community, Identity, Stability† (21) and prosperity at the loss of individuality and humanity. In Huxley’s Brave New World, the reigning

Following The Collapse Of The Soviet Union, The Environmental

Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the environmental problems of the Soviets came to widespread light. I was interested particularly in the city of Norilsk, which is located north of the Arctic Circle in Siberia. In the paper, I examine Norilsk and its main employer, Norilsk Nickel. I will discuss and analyze the situation of the city in the early 1990s and today, as well as the environmental impact of Norilsk Nickel in the 1990s and today. Finally, I will examine the perception of the environment among Russians in northern towns that are like Norilsk and environmental activism, especially at the local level. In northern Siberia lies Norilsk, an industrial town of over 100,000 people. According to (Textbook) Norilsk is close to†¦show more content†¦34). Norilsk’s main pollution product is sulfur dioxide; Peterson documents Norilsk as the â€Å"largest point source of sulfur dioxide emissions in the world† (p. 32) and Pulsipher and Pulsipher further st ate that the soil around Norilsk is able to be mined profitably for metals (p. 200). This starkly illustrates the picture of Norilsk: an environmental catastrophe where positive action is slow in coming. The lack of action is traceable to Norilsk Nickel, the successor to Norilsk Mining-Metallurgical Combine which was the Soviet enterprise that mined and smelted nickel, copper, and other metals around Norilsk. Norilsk Nickel also operates similar plants in cities across Russia, especially on the Kola Peninsula. The facilities on the Kola peninsula turn a mainly national pollution problem into one that has international implications. Pulsipher and Pulsipher state that Norilsk Nickel is â€Å"unconstrained by meaningful environmental regulations† (p. 201); Kotov and Nikitini (1996) further damn the company’s environmental record, â€Å"Norilsk Nickel and its subsidiaries are the largest source of air pollution in Russia† (p. 8). Kotov and Nikitini add â€Å"approx imately 21 percent of the sulfur was deposited in Finland† (p. 9) from the company’s operations in the Kola. Kotov and Nikitini state that in 1996 â€Å"the Russian government solicited bids from foreign companies and selected a proposal from a group of Norwegian andShow MoreRelatedWhat Is Evaluation And Evaluation Essay831 Words   |  4 Pagesimpact of the end of the Cold War in the 1990s and the collapse of the Soviet Union. This topic is presented in way that slightly differs in scope and style. The focus in all the three books is on the explicit exposition of the history of the Soviet Union before its collapse. Stearns and co-authors largely expound on the last days of the cold war in Russia. These authors focus on the new direction of the world after the collapse of the Soviet Union during the late 20th century. Fundamentally, StearnsRead MoreThe Russian-Ukraine Issue1108 Words   |  4 Pages2013, when people had just decided to strike, because of the non-competency of our (Ukrainian) ex-government in signing the EU trade agreement. At first glance, it was just a simple reaction, just a few people came to Maidan to strike, but soon following something went wrong. People just became stark and indigent in their actions, thus Ukrainian citizens decided to change something. The first impression was that only Ukraine was involved with these political affairs, but later people realized thatRead MoreThe Alliance of Britain, USSR, and the United States During WWII was a Marriage of Convenience1684 Words   |  7 Pagescountries had willingly signed a non-aggression pact, also known as the Nazi Soviet pact; however, Hitler later broke this pact when he invaded the USSR in 1941. Germany was greatly threatened by the coalition between the USSR, Britain and the USA. Prime Minister Winston Churchill offered the Soviet Union economical and technical help to defeat Hitler and Nazi Germany. The Potsdam Conference of 1945 was a meeting of the Soviet leader, Joseph Stalin, the US President Harry Truman and the British PrimeRead MoreCold War Final Essay1456 Words   |  6 Pagesalways been competitively hostile to the concept of a communist federation. Following the Bolshevik revolution, the U.S. hesitated to acknowledge the USSR for an entire 16 years. During the same time in early 1950’s, the American public’s home-grown fear of communism broke out in an additional red scare, like that of the first, in the early 1920’s. WWII contributed short-term causes of the Cold War. The aggression from the Soviets position arose when twenty million Russian inhabitants passed away throughoutRead MoreThe Ethnic Group That Has Been Fighting For Independence From Russia1259 Words   |  6 Pagescaused Russia’s annexation of the areas of the North Caucasus and ethnic cleansing of Circassia’s. Russia has rendered Chechnya an environmental wasteland with damage done by shelling, missile attacks, and also oil pollution on Chechnya’s water supply causing a social catastrophe. In 1858, after decades of violence, Chechnya is conquered by Russia following the defeat of Imam Shamil and his fighters who had aimed to establish an Islamic state. In 1859 Russia absorbed the Chechen territoryRead MoreThe Mission Of The Buran Shuttle Program Essay2286 Words   |  10 PagesIn June of 1974, the Soviet Union’s approval was given to begin the Reusable Space System (MKS). The project eventually came to be known as Buran, the name of the first shuttle built for the program. Buran was originally created to rival the technology of the United States at the time. Although the Soviet Union seemed to surpass the U.S. in early space exploration milestones such as the launch of the first satellite, the first probe to reach the moon, and the first man to orbit the Earth in spaceRead MoreThe World Economy Has Been Growing Constantly Last 55 Years1371 Words   |  6 Pagesimprove the countries various sectors but the progress was extremely slow until recently wh en country started benefitting from the IMF policies and effect of globalization. India was highly dependent on Soviet Union on trade and Russia as its key supplier of low cost oil. After the collapse of Soviet Union India got highly impacted due to the fact that now India has to buy oil from free market. During the same era due to the Gulf war many Indian’s working in gulf countries has to come back home leadingRead MoreThe Element That Changed The World1927 Words   |  8 Pagesindirectly affected the rest of the world. The effects of Chernobyl have been powerful throughout the past three decades, and have influenced different aspects of our political society as well as social reforms in the Soviet Union. Not only did the explosion bring awareness to environmental concerns, but it also altered the course of the everyday citizens under the control of the USSR. Chernobyl had some disastrous and deadly outcomes, but underneath the horror came the unification of a community andRead MoreNuclear Atomic Nuclear Reactor Was Brought Online1837 Words   |  8 P agesviability, environmental impact, and ethical concerns of using nuclear fission and radioactive chemical reactions as a public energy source. The most widespread arguments against its use all revolve around a trio of disastrous reactor failures spanning the last three decades: the meltdown on Three Mile Island, the aftermath of the tsunami in Fukushima, and the most famous nuclear accident in history, the catastrophic explosion at Chernobyl. All three have had significant environmental impacts, andRead MoreThe Chernobyl Disaster Of 1986 Essay948 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Sometimes it takes a natural disaster to reveal a social disaster† (J.Wallis). A natural disaster can be an environmental, technological, or human error. A natural disaster reveals a true society for how they recover from such devastation. The true potential that we have in all of us to come together and become stronger is astounding. After a disaster occurs, we want to learn what went wrong, how it wen t wrong, who was involved, and if there was any rules broking. For that we can evolve our society